Winning at any cost: The use of performance enhancing substances
Paris, the capital of France, often known as the City of Light, is renowned for its rich cultural heritage and architectural marvels such as the Eiffel Tower, Louvre Museum, Notre Dame Cathedral, and Arc de Triomphe. These iconic landmarks not only reflect the city’s historical significance but also contribute to its allure as one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. This ever-vibrant city has been transformed into a massive concert arena this summer due to the 33rd Summer Olympics Games.
The modern Olympics were brought back to life in 1896, following the vision of French scholar Pierre de Coubertin. Paris hosted the Olympics in 1900 and 1924, and now, for the third time, the city is pulsating with the energy and excitement of the Olympics once again. The spectacular opening ceremony of the Paris 2024 was a perfect blend of tradition with innovation and indeed evoked cherished recollections of my visits to Paris as well as to Athens, the birthplace of the Olympic Games. Witnessing the legendary athlete Carl Lewis carrying the Olympic torch during the opening ceremony also reminded me of the Men’s 100m finals at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, which I watched on TV as a Grade 6 schoolgirl.
The Men’s 100m sprint at the Seoul Olympics was a significant event in sports history showcasing intense competition and the ongoing struggle against performance enhancing substances in athletics. It was a head-to-head battle between Ben Johnson and the defending Olympic champion Carl Lewis to become the fastest man on earth. Ben Johnson had an incredible start, maintained it throughout the race and ultimately crossed the finish line first to secure the gold medal while setting a new world record and relegating Carl Lewis to the silver medal position.
However, the jubilation of this victory was only for a few days. Ben Johnson had been found positive for an anabolic steroid known as stanozolol resulting in the revocation of his gold medal and invalidation of his world record. Carl Lewis was subsequently awarded the gold medal which further solidified his legacy as one of the greatest sprinters.
As a Grade 6 student back then, I could only grasp the fact that some illegal substance was used by Johnson to win the race; however, as time passed, I was able to acquire some knowledge about the molecular structures of performance enhancing substances, their impact on the human body, and the techniques employed to detect those.
The use of banned athletic performance enhancing drugs by athletes is often called ‘doping’. The term ‘doping’ comes from the Dutch word ‘dop’, which refers to the skin of grapes that Zulu warriors used to make a wine that would give them courage in battles. This word intermingled into the modern lexicon in the 19th century. The use of performance enhancing substances in sports is not a new phenomenon.
As far back as 668 BC, athletes participating in the ancient Olympic Games in Greece were aware of the impact of special diets on their performance while in ancient Rome, racing horses were given a variety of substances to improve their performance and gladiators had used substances to increase their strength.
According to Norwegian mythology, there are accounts of the use of substances such as Bufotenin obtained from frog skin or specific Amanitamushroom species to boost performance or strength. However, the modern era of doping emerged during the latter part of the 19th century.
During the Saint Louis marathon in 1904, an athlete named Tom Hicks collapsed as a result of using a mixture of strychnine and brandy (similar to cognac) as a performance enhancer. In the next two decades, athletes relied on a variety of drugs, including opioids like heroin and stimulants like strychnine and cocaine.
After the advent of synthetic anabolic steroids in the mid-20th century, there was a noticeable increase in doping incidents. The rise in the use of performance enhancing substances among athletes, coupled with a growing awareness of the health hazards linked to these substances prompted international sports federations to take action through the implementation of anti-doping measures.
As a result, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) officially banned doping in 1928, while the International Cycling Union introduced anti-doping testing for athletes in the 1960s. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) implemented doping controls during the 1968 Olympic Games which focused primarily on testing athletes for stimulant use.
Doping substances are classified into several categories based on their effects and the ways they enhance athletic performance. This includes anabolic agents; stimulants; peptide hormones, growth factors, related substances and mimetics; hormone and metabolic modulators; beta-2 agonists; diuretics and masking agents; narcotics; cannabinoids; glucocorticoids; beta blockers and other non-approved substances.
Among those, anabolic agents, particularly anabolic steroids are the most predominant group. Athletes frequently turn to anabolic steroids due to their structural resemblance to the natural hormone testosterone, hence those could mimic its effects upon ingestion. These substances are commonly used to boost muscle mass and physical strength in preparation for competitions rather than during the events themselves, nevertheless, recent research revealed that steroid metabolites persist in the bodies of those using them for several months, making them easier to detect.
The second most commonly detected class of doping drugs are stimulants (eg: amphetamines, cocaine) that boost alertness, energy, and attention. Erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow is yet another banned agent which is often linked to ‘blood doping’. While synthetic erythropoietin is commonly used in medical settings to manage anaemia, athletes often misuse it to enhance their aerobic capacity and endurance by increasing their red blood cell count.
Diuretics and masking agents are another class of doping agents that serve dual purposes. Diuretics aid in water excretion through urine, thus commonly used by athletes to manage body weight for specific events like boxing or to dilute other banned substances by increasing urine production. On the other hand, masking agents help conceal the presence of banned substances in urine by either interfering with detection or concealing metabolites.
Apart from those, beta-2 agonists which are commonly used in the management of asthma, are misused by athletes for improving breathing and promoting muscle relaxation hence are banned above certain thresholds. Although narcotics (eg: morphine and codeine) are primarily used for pain management, these substances can help athletes to overcome minor injuries, or increase their pain tolerance during events. These substances also help reduce anxiety which can be advantageous in the high-stress setting of competitions, hence fall into the prohibited category.
The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) banned the use of psychoactive natural and synthetic cannabinoids like marijuana and hashish during competition. Similarly, beta blockers are also banned during competition in certain sports for example shooting, archery, billiards and golf because of their anti-tremor and anti-anxiety effects. Even though glucocorticoids are frequently recommended for the treatment of injuries and the management of chronic inflammatory conditions, due to the potential direct and indirect ergogenic effects, those are prohibited in competition when administered orally, rectally or in injections. Apart from those, procedures like gene doping which involves the manipulation of an athlete’s genetic material to enhance performance are also banned by WADA to maintain the integrity and fairness of sport.
The use of performance enhancing drugs poses significant health risks for athletes resulting in both immediate and longlasting complications. For instance, the adverse effects of anabolic steroids include cardiovascular issues, liver damage, and hormonal disruptions while the stimulants are known to increase the risk of heart attacks, strokes, anxiety and aggression. Moreover, blood doping can lead to life threatening conditions like blood clot formation and heart failure. Beyond the physical ramifications, doping can also impose substantial psychological damage, including addiction and depression. Thus, the pursuit of enhanced athletic performance through doping often compromises the overall health of the athlete. Yet, what drives athletes to resort to these prohibited substances?
Athletes might turn to the use of such agents for numerous reasons, despite the controversy and ethical concerns. Participation in highly competitive events where winning margins are very narrow may compel athletes to use performance enhancers. Furthermore, the desire for immediate fame, recognition status or financial incentives may force athletes to seek shortcuts through doping even at the expense of their health and integrity.
The detection of doping in sports activities integrates cutting edge techniques with strict procedural guidelines. Both routine and random drug tests are performed on athletes’ urine and blood samples to screen for banned substances and their metabolites. Particularly, state-of-the-art techniques like mass spectrometry and chromatography are available nowadays to detect even trace amounts of performance enhancing drug residues, thus making it difficult for users to evade detection.
In addition, biological passport programmes enable the monitoring of biological markers of athletes over time making it possible to identify any unusual variations that might point to doping. These comprehensive measures work together to encourage fair play and preserve the integrity of sports. As such, governing organisations like the IOC and WADA enforce stringent regulations to identify and penalise doping, to ensure equity and protect the health of athletes. Subsequently, those who opt for doping will likely be caught and face severe consequences such as suspensions, bans, and tarnished reputations, ultimately endangering their careers and legacies.
The key lesson to be learned from the unfortunate doping incidents we have seen over the years is the importance of upholding the principles of fair play and commitment for long term success and respect. Hence one should always keep in mind that true achievements come from hard work and innate talent, rather than from unethical shortcuts.