What is Islamic about a Muslim wedding? The bride is escorted by her father with the bridal march playing in the background, she sits on a throne displayed to hundreds of people, after a brief prayer ceremony, the groom places a ring on the bride's finger and presents her with a gold chain.
In Islam there are only two ceremonies to mark a wedding. First is the 'Nikah' which is the equivalent of, 'registration' where the bride's father and groom sign the matrimonial agreement in the presence of two witnesses. The second is the 'waleema' which is a ceremony to mark the consummation of the marriage.
The ten functions before and after the wedding (which is usually a gross display of individual wealth) have nothing to do with Islam, nor has the exchanging of rings, or bridal march which are Christian customs while, placing a chain or 'tying the Thali' has been directly borrowed from Hindu weddings.
Despite claims that Sri Lankan Muslims have their own identity, they are probably the only community that does not.
The three other communities in this country; Sinhalese, Tamils and Burghers have practises unique to themselves with only a few inter communal customs. Most Muslim practises however appear to have been borrowed from other religions and least of all reflect Islamic teachings.
Its not just the wedding ceremony. Even the pre-marriage customs are not in accordance with Islam.
There are many Sri Lankan Muslim women who are forced into marriage without prior consent. Most marriages are customarily arranged with the bride and groom never seeing each other until the day of the wedding, both of which are un-Islamic. The religion requires the woman and man to meet at least once and one consent of both parties is vital for the marriage to take place.
"Dowry itself is un-Islamic. In Muslim countries many give the dowry whereas in Sri Lanka this has become a curse," says Mr. Kamaldeen who is a honorary librarian of the Sri Lanka Islamic Centre.
The dowry system which is a Hindu custom has come into the Muslim community and today, it is a dominant practise amongst the Muslims.
Families in rural areas are often forced to sell all their assets to give a daughter in marriage simply because the husband's matrimonial acceptance depends on a fat cheque. The system has eaten into Muslim society and it is almost a hazard to have a daughter.
The dowry system is a clear example of how traditions of other communities have infiltrated Muslim practises to the extent that it entirely contradicts the religion.
In Islam the equivalent of the dowry the, 'Mahr', is given by the husband to the wife.
These arguments give rise to the whole issue of women's rights, where it is customary among Muslims not to educate women after a certain age. Women are also not permitted to seek employment.
Islam contrastingly gives women much more rights. While the importance of being a mother and wife is emphasised in the religion, women are also permitted to work, and education is encouraged.
The concept of rights is stretched to the extent that all that a woman earns or any income she gets is for herself and need not be shared with her family.
There are two strong explanations for this cultural intrusion. One, is that Sri Lankan Muslims originate from Arab traders who came to the country and married local women.
The initial argument is that Arab men married Sinhalese women but this is disputed by the fact that Muslims neither speak Sinhalese nor Arabic as their mother tongue.
Tamil being the commonly spoken language obviously indicates they are of Tamil origin. The Arab traders also had close links with India and this resulted in the birth of a massive South Indian Muslim community, which inherited their ancestral values. This explains the integration of Hindu practises into Muslim lifestyles.
The second explanation is that until recently Muslims never learnt Islam by studying the Quran or reading it.
It was only recently that the Quran was translated to Sinhala, Tamil and English and was made available to the common reader. Prior to this, the religion was only learnt through teachings that came down generations and with it came the practises and traditions of other cultures.
This is obvious in almost all Muslim practises. For instance when a young girl attains puberty several customs are adhered to. They include kicking a clay pot, sighting a coconut tree, staying enclosed in a room for several days and holding on to a key for security. After a week of such practises several ceremonies are held to announce the fact.
All these practises though constantly practised by the Muslims have no Islamic backing.
If the origins of Muslim practises were to be traced it would point to all three religions.
From the Christians have come most aspects of the wedding ceremony- the Westernised dress code and the indiscreet religious practise of saint worship.
There is some mention of saints in Islam but the concept of saint worship has been borrowed from the Christians says Dr. Mareena Refai.
She explains that following the Original Sin theory Muslims have begun aping other customs such as paying floral tributes to the saints which is completely against Islamic principles.
Apart from the dowry and the 'Thali' the Muslims have taken from the Hindus the 'Alathi' custom. This is where betel leaf and lime is rotated over a person's head in accordance to a Hindu ritual.
The Buddhists share their Poruwa ceremony with the Muslims, and though controversial it is argued that the Muslim practise of praying for the dead originates from the Buddhist concept of a 'Dhane.'
The most deplorable cultural intrusion into the Muslim community according to religious leaders is the division of the community.
While Christianity divides into different beliefs such as Catholicism and Protestantism, and Buddhists and Hindus observe a cast system, Islam is probably the only religion that condemns such divisions. This is probably the most disappointing consequence of living in a multi ethnic country.
The boast of Arabic origin is not evident by the customs practised by Muslims. The only indicator is the fact that trade is still the most popular profession amongst the Muslims.
The only other notable custom is eating together which is done at most religious ceremonies where a group of people eat out of one large plate known as 'Sahan'.
It is this cultural adaptability that is believed to be the secret of the universality of Islam. When the religion was first introduced to Arabia it did not hamper the extant culture says M.Z.M. Nazim. He argues that it is this adaptability that has resulted in the spread of the religion across the world where it is practised by 1/6th of the world's population.
Even with regard to the dress code the religion tells you what to wear and not how to wear it, he says justifying his argument that the religion is not rigid and leaves room for other cultures.
However the customs and traditions must not be at the expense of the religious principles which is what happens in Sri Lanka. Other religious practises are welcomed as long as they do not contradict Islam, says Mr Nazim.
What is obvious is that Muslims in Sri Lanka lack their own identity. All other communities have their own unique features but the Muslims have copied the customs of other communities, they do not possess their own language and their dress code is hardly a reflection of Islam.
Idealistically this should not happen because Islam is more than a religion, it is a way of life, says Dr Refai. There is no necessity to borrow from other cultures when Islam has the answers to any question, she says.
It is a pity the practises of Sri Lankan Muslims fail to mirror their religious beliefs. It only leads to the question 'are Muslims really practising Islam.?'
Napoleon's love letter to Josephine shows that even emperors-to-be sometimes struggle with etiquette
Napoleon and Josephine may have been among the most famous lovers in French history, but an odd hiccup arose early in their marriage over the enduringly tricky question of whether to address each other formally, as vous, or more intimately, using tu.
A passionate love letter, written by Napoleon to Josephine in 1796 and sold at auction in Paris yesterday for Fr650,000 (£65,000), reveals that the future emperor and his wife fell out over which form of address they should use - a problem for Frenchspeakers through the ages.
Replying to a letter sent by Josephine just a few weeks after their marriage, Napoleon admonished his bride for using the more respectful but distant style of speech.
"You call me vous," he complained. "Ah! But this is dreadful, how could you have written a letter like that? It is so cold."
The letter was sent from Nice on March 30 as Napoleon, then a 27-year-old general, was on his way to join the French Army in Italy.
He
had left Paris two days after their wedding on March 9, and the letter
(his fifth since leaving home) reflects the anxieties of a young husband,
separated from his new wife and nervous that she should still be using
the formal form of address. "I am scared of what I imagine,"
he wrote.
Josephine de Beauharnais was a worldly 33-year-old widow (her first husband was guillotined) when Napoleon married her and the letter, purchased yesterday by an American collector for three times the estimated price, is a touching testament to his adoration as well as his doubts. "Not a night has passed without my imagining you in my arms ... in the midst of business, leading the troops, marching through the camps, my lovely Josephine is alone in my heart occupying my spirit, absorbing my thoughts," he wrote.
The question of whether and when to use the singular tu or the respectful second-person plural vous remains the biggest social minefield in the French language, dependent on such factors as class, occupation and age, and is the cause of endless misunderstandings and slights.
Married couples would normally be expected to use the tu form, but not always. Colette addressed her husband as tu and he was accustomed to reply pompously in the vous form.
Jacques Chirac and his wife Bernadette address each other as vous, as do many haut bourgeois couples, but the President addresses the likes of Tony Blair as tu. Francois Mitterrand, the late former President, used tu only when speaking to his closest friends or insulting his bitterest enemies. Napoleon's 1796 letter, sold by the Drouot auction house, was part of a private collection of Napoleonic artefacts.
Napoleon's anxieties were only too well- founded, given Josephine's notorious infidelities and wide-ranging sexual appetites. While the letter leaves no doubt of the future emperor's infatuation, one is left with the sneaking suspicion that his wife purposely used the austere vous form, just to keep the young Napoleon's amour on the boil. - London Times
The following is yet another excerpt in our continuing series of excerpts from the book The History of the Ceylon Police, by former Deputy Inspector General of Police A. C. Dep.
The reaction to the new taxes by the people of Colombo was in the form of a mammoth meeting where a monster petition would be drawn up to be presented to the Governor. The meeting was duly advertised but the Government did not want it to take place. Plans were drawn up to stop this.
A large Police strength was mustered to meet any situation which may arise. Steps were taken to seal off the Fort. Three constables were placed at the three entrances to the Fort to see that those who had no business to be in the Fort were kept out. Ten men were set aside to guard the Bridge of Boats to check on people entering the city from this direction. Assistant Superintendent De La Harpe with 20 men were to be at Pettah Police Station to move at short notice. The new Superintendent Macartney was to be at Welikade with 2 Inspectors and 40 constables. Six of these constables were to be on duty in plain clothes.
On the 26 July by 6 a.m. the Police were at their posts, De La Harpe being at Pettah and Macartney being at Welikade. The Civil Servants, Morris (Acting Colonial Secretary), Gibson (Government Agent) and Norris (the Assistant Government Agent, Kurunegala) were at hand to back and support the Police. At 11 a.m. information was received that a large body of men, nearly 700 were advancing in their direction. Macartney drew up his men in line and faced them. The crowd reached them and tried to forcibly get past them. A struggle ensued and Macartney was struck a severe blow in his face and his men were carried away by the crowd. A fresh struggle was necessary to rescue them. Morris, Gibson and Norris with some members of the public assisted the Police. Soon after fighting was over Dr. Elliott addressed the crowd in a very familiar manner. The Governor then arrived with troops and the crowd dispersed. Six men arrested in Pettah for creating disturbances were released on the undertaking given that they would be produced when required.
Norris has left a record of what he observed. "Having been present on that occasion and witnessed the extraordinary influence that Dr. Elliott possessed over the rioters, it scarcely required us to hear his address of "You all know me and I know most of you" to satisfy me of his identity with them-on his promise that he would restrain them from further violence I came away to countermand the troops which had before been sent for, but missed them by taking a different road to the Fort." Norris was also convinced that this was not an isolated occurrence."
The Governor immediately ordered a reward of £15 to be distributed among the Police who participated in this action. Besides these men were authorised to wear a Good Conduct stripe between the left elbow and wrist.
While the last of the anti-taxation demonstrations were taking place in Colombo more serious developments were taking place at Dambulla. Here a protestor by the name of Denis, his brother David and a large number of people gathered. An unwilling monk, by threats, was constrained to perform the Coronation rite, crowning Denis as King. Denis immediately issued a Proclamation threatening death to all Europeans and degradation to the Kandyans who supported them by threatening to hand them over to the Rodiyas.
The Mahanilame of Matale asked for military assistance and the Superintendent of Police, Loku Banda came with a police party to survey the situation. He found the area in a very disturbed state and warned the Magistrate Waring of the situation and returned to Kandy. He left behind a police party at Matale. At Kandy he informed the Government Agent (Buller) of the situation. He next saw Colonel Drought and arranged to have the guns on the Western and Eastern Redoubts manned as he feared an attack on Kandy. Special Police Constables were sworn in and the Matale Volunteers were called out. Loku Banda and Buller made their way to Matale.
In the meantime the rebels were on the way to Matale. The large number of people who accompanied the Pretender included low-country marauders. "These were reported to be chiefly low-country marauders headed by an escaped convict by the name of Poorang Appoo.' The pretender was carried in a palanquin and on the way people prostrated themselves before him. Giranagama Unnanse superintended the blocking of the road. when they arrived in Matale the Police party was nowhere to be seen.
They had fled. And Waring who was bottling his beer left the beer and made his way to Kandy. He was met on the way by Buller and Loku Banda. He informed them that Matale had fallen. Buller and Loku Banda returned to Kandy and arranged for Colonel Drought to send troops to Matale. They gave the rebels time to manifest their intentions by criminal acts. Puran Appu and his gang looted the town. "Poorang Appoo is also amongst this gang and the bazaar has been shown to me which he was active in pillaging." The Pretender had on the way tried to maintain some sort of discipline among his followers. He had flogged some with five rattans for plundering, cut another with a sword and had rescued a European whom the rebels would have killed. By the time he reached Wariyapola estate to rest for the night, the Pretender was a disappointed man. "The King expressed his sorrow that there should be a crowd of robbers destroying things."
In the morning of the 29th his followers gathered by the roadside where there were two huge jak trees, awaiting the arrival of the troops from Kandy. Meanwhile the Pretender who had previous experience disappeared in good time leaving behind his palanquin. "I deserted them", said he in his confession later on. The Government Agent (Buller) coming in a phaeton with the Deputy Queens Advocate and the Deputy Fiscal overtook the troops which had come close to Wariyapola. The rebels were near the jak trees armed and obstructing the road. Buller ordered Captain Lillee to disarm them. Arms were removed from 60 of these men and the rest dispersed into the jungle. While the men were being guarded the Malays entered the jungle. They pursued the rebels shooting at them. They came across the palanquin which they attacked, killing a man who was hiding in it. They smashed this to bits. The Malays were restrained from killing the captives. Several were injured and 8 were killed of the rebels while a European had a bruised injury on his thigh. A commemorative stone marks this spot with the legend "Wariyapola-Rebels dispersed here by Troops under Captain Lillie, CRR, 29 July 1848."
On July 29 Martial Law `was declared and Captain Albert Watson of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment was appointed Commandant, to function directly under Colonel Drought. Watson took an over serious view of the situation and the steps he took were far in excess of what the situation demanded. So much so that it appeared to some that he had started a rebellion on his own. What he did by his severity was more than what the Rebels did by their violence.
He took immediate steps to round up all those who were concerned in the recent events. One of these was Golahela, the Maha Nilame. His note asking for 20 men to bury the casualties of Wariyapola was given a sinister interpretation. He was taken into custody and the 80 year old man was sent on foot to Kandy, a distance of 16 miles. Within four of five days of his assumption of power, Watson sent 40 prisoners to Kandy, escorted by a party of 18 soldiers under Captain Henderson. Henderson had instructions to destroy all the prisoners, if shots were fired at them by the Rebels. Captain Henderson later stated, "My party consisted of about 18 men and I had given over to me forty and one prisoners, one of them being the celebrated robber and gaol breaker, of the name of Poorang Appoo, who was afterwards tried and shot in Kandy and died saying that if the King had four men like him he would have taken Kandy - a piece of cool but very silly bravado."
Courts Martial were held soon after and 9 were found guilty of Treason and other charges and sentenced to be shot. Watson approved the sentences and periodically Drought had occasion to note Watson's work. On one occasion he commented, "My dear Watson you are getting on swimmingly." Nine were shot after being sentenced by the Courts Martial. These executions were done in a novel way. Those to be shot "being set up on casks with their backs to trees."
At the same time a campaign of burning and seizure of the rebels' properties took place. This was on the authorisation of a Proclamation which bore the signature of what appeared to be Watson's. A large amount of property was seized in this way. The Maha Nilame suffered a loss of over £7000/-. This caused a great deal of hardship and illwill.
On Sept 21,1848 a party of Malays sent by Watson seized the Pretender Denis who was hiding in a cave at Elkaduwa. Denis, the Pretender was also referred to as 'wahumpuraya,' 'Jawa,' 'Vederale,' Kapurau Bastiya' and 'Gongalagoda Banda.'
During this time the tension and excitement with which Watson worked at counter-measures is revealed by Loku Banda. "Indeed when I went down to Matale at the time he was getting up what we called 'Watson's Rebellion,' I found him quite mad, rushing up and down his verandah and calling every now and then for his Jemindar to ask him if the Rifles were loaded and the swords sharpened.'' Loku Banda informed Buller of what he noticed and Watson was removed. In Matale the rebellion ended on the 29th. "After Wariyapola we find the Military scouring the country, seizing persons and property, burning houses and so forth."
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