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Another look
at the past The political
history of the ancient and medieval periods of this country has
become rather murky terrain. In fact, the political history of that
period has been deleted from the history curriculum of a local University.
The author, a senior professor of History at Peradeniya University
and presently Vice Chancellor of the Rajarata University maintains
a very professional approach. He has discussed the 5th century BC
era, the beginnings of the Anuradhapura kingdom, its invaders, its
fall, the rise and decline of Polonnuruwa, and the post-Polonnaruwa
era up to the coming of the Portuguese. The separate
chapters dealing with the political history of the country are not
too extensive but follow a chronological sequence. The author
views the Vijaya legend and those up to Pandukabhaya as migratory
bands and the rise of the indigenous nobility respectively. That
would be the most reasonable explanations of those events. In the
next few chapters he takes the reader from early state formation
to the end of the 15th century. The Dutugamunu-Elara war, the bete
noir of the period, is seen as a 'feudal struggle' between the two
adversaries, but unfortunately the 'feudal' nature of the adversaries
has not been substantiated. Yet he has
ably demonstrated that the 'struggle' led to the political unification
of the island. The emergence of Anuradhapura as the centre of power
is seen through a number of selected kings, and also as influenced
by the 'bureaucracy'. Although the author has provided a few examples
of what he calls the bureaucracy, by and large the picture created
is rather hazy. The author then draws attention to the complications
arising out of kings seeking South Indian help in their wars, and
also on the enervating effect of South Indian invasions itself,
which finally leads to the abandoning of Anuradhapura. In those chapters
the author has shown the external aggressors who invaded the country.
He states that the earlier ones would have been supported by Indian
commercial and political pressure groups, while the latter were
mostly imperial powers. In the next
few chapters, attention is drawn to the neglect of irrigation during
the Chola occupation of Polonnaruwa, which is characteristic of
all periods of such forced occupation of the throne. In the religio-social
sphere he speaks of their probable influence on the Hindu pantheon
gaining prominence in the island and also sees some sort of Brahmin/Hindu
influence in the gradation of the caste structure. Although that
structure is not what is seen from about the 16th century, he cites
as evidence for such gradation, Vijayabahu I (1055-1110) providing
a separate platform for the lower castes to worship at Sripada. In the last
chapter of the political section the author focuses attention on
the Vanniyars, and the kingdoms of Dambadeniya, Gampola and Kotte,
and that of Jaffna. Throughout the book there is an imperceptible
note that apart from the periods of invasions by the South Indians,
the Tamils lived peacefully on the island, principally engaging
in trade and also making donations to the Sangha. It is to the
credit of the author that he has based his arguments on established
facts and sources. It is also seen that he has used his very extensive
knowledge of the period to select the appropriate examples/events
that would give the reader a general idea of the aspects he has
dealt with. The continuous
thread seen running through the entire period of nineteen centuries
dealt with in the book is Buddhism. Whether it was due to Buddhism
or not, it is also seen that during that entire period the Sinhala
people have not initiated a war to conquer others. The recorded
wars are for the succession to the throne, mostly among brothers
or sons of a king, but otherwise they were only responses to external
aggression. Sometimes the intruders were successfully repulsed in
the first encounters, and at other times, the Sinhalese had come
back from their retreat, and had driven them out of our shores.
The only instance when a total repulsion was not achieved was when
Chandrabhanu was able to leave a residue of his army in the Jaffna
peninsula, and as seen, it had subsequently consolidated itself
to remain a continued irritant in the Sinhala polity The author
has a fairly long chapter analyzing the causes of decline of the
Rajarata civilization. In it he dismisses the malarial epidemic
as a cause of decline, and emphasizes on climatic change, external
aggression, particularly of Magha (1215 AD), and the desire to engage
in the increasing Indian Ocean trade of that period. In the rest
of the book, he examines 14 other aspects in the history of the
country - Administration, demography, urbanization, transport, land
tenure, irrigation, animal husbandry and fisheries, internal and
foreign trade, society, religion, cultural contacts, literature
and art and architecture. In all these chapters the author makes
a quick, but comprehensive survey pointing to the main features
of the aspects he is dealing with, and provides a very broad picture. The two chapters
on internal and foreign trade are very informative, and the author
refutes the idea that the Sinhalese did not engage in trade. He
argues that although certain items of trade were monopolies of the
king, people engaged in trade/barter to acquire other essentials
that a village did not have. He is also of the view that there would
have been separate villages for the production of different wares
like pottery, glassware, reed-ware and the like. To me, reading
through the book was a pleasure, as it was evident that in it the
historian's craft had been given full rein. The book is
in an easy to read style without cliches and pedantic allusions.
To the general reader it would provide a picture of the country
in broad perspective, while to the professional historian it would
also give the prominent markers in those aspects that he has dealt
with, that would be useful as ready reference material. As to the production,
the print is very clear, and the 64-colour illustrations are excellent;
proofing too has been fairly thorough. My major regret is that the
Sinhala words have not been provided with diacritical marks to indicate
their correct pronunciation: I hope that would be made good in the
next edition. A few more maps indicating the very important and
relevant places mentioned in the various chapters would certainly
highlight their significance. In conclusion, I might add that those who would possess a copy of Siriweera's well compiled book would certainly come to value its possession over the years. A
Police perspective The book published
by Additional Solicitor General, Priyasath Dep, PC, the son of the
author unfolds the story of the Sinhala - Muslim riots from the
Police perspective. The author
had dedicated himself to tracing and locating old police files and
spent a considerable amount of time on research and reference, to
bring forth a well documented volume. This book deals
with the declaration of martial law, the arrest, detention and prosecution
of offenders under it, the trials by court-martial and the glaring
instances of miscarriage of justice, while describing in detail
the confrontation which took place between the Sinhalese and Muslims
in the hill country. In his detailed
account, Dep gives the breakdown of persons killed as a result of
the firing by the police, Punjabis, volunteers or town guards. The censorship
of the vernacular press is also mentioned in the chapter titled
'The government machinery gets into stride'. "On 4
June the censor wanted the Sinhala Baudhaya not to appear. On 7
June came the order from the colonial secretary that "all Sinhalese
papers be stopped till martial law prevails". The IG conveyed
this order to the editors of the 11 Sinhalese newspapers which were
then in circulation." Telephones
too were tapped with official listeners strategically placed to
gather information. "This method was used till all the leading
Sinhalese were taken into custody". All statements
made are supported by cross references to Police riot files running
into numerous volumes. Official correspondence
in connection with the riots, and Police action taken following
the riots is presented providing the reader with insight into a
bygone era. Thus apart
from the book's value as an in-depth study of the Sinhala Muslim
riots of 1915, it also provides a sociologically fulfilling look
at the carefully maintained social strata of Sri Lanka a century
ago, when it was Ceylon and still in the frenzied clutches of the
British empire. In a chapter titled 'Riots in retrospect', the following lines are relevant to us almost a century later; "The Nationalist movement which aimed at making the Sinhalese better than they were by weaning them from drink and other bad habits acquired from foreigners, made the Sinhalese more united and more conscious of their united strength". The
concise guide to the Anglo-Sri Lankan lexicon - V by Richard Boyle Brown scale
(1822). According to the OED2 it is "The protective covering
of insects of the family Coccide, which remains when they die and
protects the eggs and afterwards the young beneath it; hence, scale-insect;
also, the diseased condition of plants caused thereby." The
first reference, or illustrative quotation, is from the Transactions
of the Horticultural Society (1822[1826]: VI.117): "Directions
for destroying the bug and scale on pine-apple plants." Two
other references are by J. D. Hooker from his Journal of Botany.
The first (1850:II.353) reads: "The 'brown scale' or Coccus,
so injurious to the Coffee-plants in Ceylon," and the second
(Ibid. 356): "The number of eggs contained in one of these
scales is prodigious." Ceylon tea
(1886). "A Pekoe tea produced in Ceylon; also elliptically
as Ceylon." The first reference is from the Ceylon Mercantile
and Planting Directory (1886 [1891]:50): "The reply to your
question as to whether Ceylon tea can be laid down in London at
6d per pound, depends a great deal on rates of freight." As
an example of the elliptical type of reference the OED2 provides
the following downbeat observation by the novelist John Braine from
his 1960s bestseller, Life at the Top (1962:253): "London water
and the cheapest Ceylon tea didn't make a very livening brew."
The most recent, or post-dating reference, is by P.V. Price from
France (1966:33): "China tea, with lemon, may be had as well
as Ceylon or Indian tea." The OED2 records
the obsolete meaning of Ceylon tea (1814). (The name tea) "applied
to various plants whose leaves, flowers, etc., are used in the same
way as tea." The only reference is from the Horticulture of
Bengal (1814:18): "Elaeodendron Glaucum, Ceylon tea."
Ceylon tea
tree (1858). (The name tea-tree) "applied to various other
trees." The only reference is from The Vegetable Kingdom (1858:
231): "Elaeodendron glaucum, a native of Ceylon and Coromandel,
has been introduced [into South Africa] under the name of Ceylon
tea tree." Coffee. Although
coffee is too universal to be considered part of the Anglo-Sri Lankan
lexicon, in the OED2 entry under "general combinations"
there are references by James Emerson Tennent from Ceylon (1859)
concerning the island's coffee industry, such as coffee crop, "The
entire coffee crop of Ceylon," coffee plant, "The coffee
plant . . . which is a native of Africa," and coffee-planting
"The healthy condition in which coffee-planting appears at
the present day in Ceylon. In addition, under "special combinations"
there is coffee-bug. "The coffee-bug has for some years past
devastated some plantations in Ceylon." Creeper (1893).
"A pupil in the tea-planting trade, especially in Ceylon."
The first reference to this word comes from the Field of April 6,
1893: "Creepers, as they are called, are constantly coming
out to learn tea." The next reference is from The Standard
of January 2, 1894: "Creeper, it seems, is the technical term
for a pupil whose parents pay a high premium to have him taught
the art and mystery of tea-planting in Ceylon." A further reference
by Lord F. Hamilton from Here, There and Everywhere (1921:48) reads:
"(In Ceylon) Planters are divided locally into three categories:
the managers, … the assistants,… and the premium pupils,
known as creepers." I prefer the
following informative reference by E. C. Elliot and F. J. Whitehead
from Tea Planting in Ceylon (1930:xv): "An energetic and capable
man, the 'creeper,' the local term for a beginner, may hope to pass
through the preliminary stages of his training in three to five
years, after which he may reasonably expect to be given full charge
of an estate and eventually to become an estate inspector or visiting
agent." Creeper is
the only word on this list accorded a corresponding entry in Hobson-Jobson
(H-J2). There is a reference by A. L. Mayhew from Notes & Queries
(8 series V 124): "In The Standard Jan. 1 1894 there appears
a letter entitled 'Ceylon tea-planters - A warning,' and signed
'An ex-creeper'. The correspondent sends a cutting from a recent
issue of a Ceylon daily paper - a paragraph headed 'Creepers Galore.'
From this extract it appears that Creeper is the name given in Ceylon
to paying pupils who go out there to learn tea-planting." Kangany (1681):
"[From Tamil kankani, kan eye + kan to see] An overseer or
headman of a gang of local labourers in Sri Lanka, southern India,
and Malaya." The OED2 definition does not reflect other, traditional
meanings of this word in Sri Lanka. Moreover, the dictionary ascribes
first usage of the word to "Philalethes" (1817), rather
than to Robert Knox, who writes in An Historical Relation of Ceylon
(1681:51): "… Congconna, an overseer. Who is to oversee
all things under the Courlividani." Robert Percival,
writing in An Account of the Island Ceylon (1803:259), is one of
three further authors to antedate "Philalethes": "An
inferior rank of officers to these is composed of Conganies, aratjes,
&c. who hold the same stations here as among the Cinglese, and
fulfil the duties of constables and police officers." James Cordiner,
writing in A Description of Ceylon (1807[1983]:58), lists kangany
among the lower indigenous ranks: "The highest class of native
magistrates is known by the name of modelears . . . subservient
to these, to conduct the business and maintain the peace of the
country, are mahoottiars, or secretaries, mahondirams, who may be
called lieutenants, aratchies, serjeants, canganies, corporals,
and lascoreens, private soldiers." John D'Oyly
notes in his Diaries (1810[1917]:27): "He did not go to Malwatte
viharaya, but resided with the other 2 at the house of his relation
Bottata Mohm, who is Seytapenage Kankan." The earliest
reference given in the OED2, by "Philalethes" [Robert
Fellowes] (1817:324), reads: "Canganeme. This officer musters
the people of the village, and calls them together when there is
any work to be done." A further reference by "Philalethes"
(Ibid.336) given in the OED2 echoes Cordiner (1807): "Canganys,
corporals under the aratsches." John Davy,
writing in An Account of the Interior of Ceylon (1821:147), employs
an exotic variant: "The cancawnamas were petty officers, employed
chiefly in aiding in the collecting of revenue." James Selkirk,
writing in Recollections of Ceylon, After a Residence of Nearly
Thirteen Years (1844:63), remarks on distinctions of rank: "The
kanghanama and gama rala are not allowed to wear any caps."
In a further reference Selkirk (Ibid.64) writes of the retinue of
an adigar: " … and a Kanghanama bearing betel." Kangany assumed
its more modern and familiar meaning after the inception of the
coffee plantation industry in Ceylon in the 1830s. This is illustrated
by the following reference by William Knighton from Forest life
in Ceylon (1854:I.123): "My canganies, or head-workmen, informed
me, that they had compared the rooms to cattle-stalls, and that
those were laughed at who occupied them." In a further reference
Knighton (Ibid.168) remarks: "Our conversation, as might be
supposed, was principally of the crops, of our late bustle and hurry
and hard work, of his felling and planting, of his nursery, of the
laziness of the coolies, and the cunning falsehoods of the canganies."
Henry W. Cave,
writing in The Ceylon Government Railway (1910[2002]:135), uses
the word in the context of the tea plantation industry in Ceylon,
which replaced the coffee industry in the 1870s: "Each gang
is in the charge of a cangany or taskmaster, who superintends the
work of the labourers, chastises them for their shortcomings, and
looks after their finances, not always disinterestedly. The cangany
plays an important part not only in the management of the labourers,
but also in their supply." Bella Woolf,
writing in How to see Ceylon (1914: 106), notes: "The 'pluckers'
are chiefly Tamil coolies imported from the Coast of India, and
are under the supervision of a native overseer or kangany." Frederick Lewis,
writing in Sixty-four Years in Ceylon (1926[1993]:48), comments:
"The labour force was divided under two head kanganies, both
of whom were on the worst possible terms with the other." Robert Standish,
writing in Elephant Walk (1948:13), provides a reference from fiction:
"'All is well now that the Master is back,' came the grave
reply from the kangany." A. Sivanandan,
writing in When Memory Dies (1997:191), provides a more recent reference
from fiction: "… he was of Indian stock, the grandson
of a kangany …" Shyam Selvadurai,
writing in Cinnamon Gardens (1998:180), provides another recent
reference from fiction: "Then there's trouble at the estate.
Your kangany is up to his old tricks." A further reference
by Selvadurai (Ibid.190) reads: "Balendran was usually very
careful to placate and humour the kangany while, at the same time,
ensuring the welfare of the workers." Nettle-grub
(1895). "The caterpillar of a moth of the family Limacodidae,
which has stinging hairs and is the pest of the tea plant in Sri
Lanka." The only reference provided by the OED2 is the definition
from the Standard Dictionary (1895): "A stinging caterpillar
injurious to the tea plant." Sizer (1677).
"A device for testing the size of articles, or for separating
them according to size." The only reference provided by the
OED2 is a definition from the Simmonds Dictionary of Trade (1858):
"sizers, machines used in Ceylon made of perforated sheet zinc
or wire gauze, for separating the coffee into three sizes." |
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Copyright © 2001 Wijeya Newspapers
Ltd. All rights reserved. |
edition
of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED2) as befitting their past
or present commercial importance. Among the terms recorded in the
OED2 that are associated with the island and which form part of
the Anglo-Sri Lankan lexicon are the geographical appellation, Ceylon
tea, and, from the vocabulary of the planter, creeper and kangany.
Other terms from the planter's vocabulary that are not so familiar
are brown scale, nettle-grub, and sizer. Date of first use is provided
in brackets.
